Charles I

Portrait by Anthony van Dyck (1636)

Regnal name: King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland

Birth name: Charles Stuart

Gaelic name: Teàrlach Stiùbhart 

Born: 19 November 1600, Dunfermline, Fife, Kingdom of Scotland

Father: King James I & VI of England, Scotland and Ireland

Mother: Princess Anne of Denmark

House: Stuart

Nationality: Scottish

Religion: Protestantism

Claim: Child of James I 

Reign: 27 March 1625 - 30 January 1649 (23 years)

Coronation: 02 February 1626

Predecessor: James I

Successor: Charles II 

Died: 30 January 1649 (aged 48), Westminster, Middlesex, Kingdom of England

Cause: Execution by decapitation

Burial: Windsor Castle

Motto: While I breathe, I hope 

Spouse(s):

• Princess Henrietta-Maria of France (m. 1625 - 1649) 

Children:

• With Princess Henrietta-Maria of France
• Prince Charles, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay (1629 - 1629)
• King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland (1630 - 1685)
• Mary, Princess of Orange (1631 - 1660)
• King James II of England, Scotland and Ireland (1633 - 1701)
• Princess Elizabeth (1635 - 1650)
• Princess Anne (1637 - 1640)
• Princess Catherine (1639 - 1639)
• Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (1640 - 1660)
• Princess Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans (1644 - 1670)  

Appearance:

Charles was very short in stature, possibly standing at around 152cm (5'0'') in height, and notably very weak looking, especially during his youth. His legs in particular were very wobbly, which was likely as a result of rickets. He was very sickly throughout his childhood, which possibly resulted in stunted physical development. 

 

His features were narrow and pointed, with dark eyes and brown hair, often styling his facial hair into a moustache and pointed beard. Charles was also reported to have looked immature for his age. 

  

Character:

He was most notorious for his stubbornness and inferiority complex. He was a firm believer in the divine right of kings, and hated having to rule alongside Parliament, which would ultimately plunge the kingdoms of Britain into a brutal civil war. Though he was a very brave individual, he often overcompensated due to living the shadow of his older brother for the majority of his youth, and because he was often overlooked due to his physical weakness.

 

Incredibly self-righteous, he often refused to compromise, and was particularly harsh against the Puritan population. However, he was deeply religious and pious, and attempt to set an example of living a more virtuous life. He was loyal to his wife, and the two became very close despite initial tensions early in their marriage due to religious differences. Charles was also a devoted father, and was close and loving with all of his children, perhaps as a result of his own lonely and isolated upbringing.   

 

Charles also possessed a stammer due to his stunted development at an early age, but he always refused to let this get in the way of him delivering speeches. Deep down, however, this still made Charles incredibly self-conscious, shy, and reserved. 

 

Despite his shyness, Charles also possessed a short temper, and was prone to fits of jealousy, and vindictive, petty outbursts, such as blasting water from a fountain directly into the face of one of his father's favourites. He would frequently clash with courtiers, politicians and his subjects. This resulted in him becoming deeply unpopular both as a monarch, and as a person.  

 

His hobbies included collecting artwork, horse riding, and hunting.

  

Biography:

Charles was the second son born to King James VI of Scotland (later also King James I of England, Scotland and Ireland), and his wife, Princess Anne of Denmark, in the Kingdom of Scotland in 1600. Upon his birth, he became the Duke of Albany, the traditional title held by the second son of the Scottish reigning monarch. As the second son, it appeared unlikely that Charles would ever inherit the thrones of both Scotland and England. 

 

During his infancy, Charles possessed very fragile health, and was too sick to join the rest of his family when they journeyed to England in preparation for his father's coronation there. It took much longer than average for Charles to learn to walk, not being able to do so until the age of 3, likely as a result of rickets which is usually caused by a vitamin D deficiency. His speech development was also slow, and this would result in him possessing a stammer for the rest of his life. While Charles remained behind in Scotland, he was placed in the care of one of his father's closest friends. 

  

A year later in 1604, Charles was finally deemed healthy and strong enough to join the rest of his family in England. When he finally reached London, he was placed in the care of another courtier, and was made the Duke of York, a title traditionally held by the second son of the English reigning monarch. He received an excellent education with a focus on languages, mathematics, and religion, predominantly being educated by Presbyterian tutors. Charles would also often be bullied by his older brother, Prince Henry, and his physical weaknesses and disabilities often caused him to be mocked, pitied, or completely ignored. However, Charles would very much admire his older brother, and tried to be just like him in every way. 

 

As a child, Charles was very much unwanted, as nobles fought over who wouldn't have to have custody over him, due to his fragile health. Many people were afraid that Charles might die under their care, and so nobody wanted to take responsibility for him. 

 

Unfortunately, in 1612, Prince Henry would suddenly pass away, meaning that Charles was now next in line for the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland. As was custom, he was made the Prince of Wales soon afterwards. His father desired a powerful and peaceful political marriage for him, with his sights originally set on the Infanta Maria Anna of Spain, the niece of the Holy Roman Emperor. However, this idea would be deeply unpopular, especially as tensions between Catholics and Protestants in Europe continued to rise. The idea would be blocked by Parliament, causing a further rift between the government and royal family.

 

In spite of this, Charles, alongside his father's male favourite (and possible lover), George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, travelled in disguise to Spain in 1623 in order to initiate their own private negotiations regarding the marriage alliance. Charles met with Maria Anna, who was not impressed by him and viewed him as a heretic. Spain would also only agree to the match if Charles converted to Catholicism, and if policies more tolerate to Catholics were introduced in Britain. Unable to negotiate, Charles and Buckingham left Spain with no alliance having been achieved, with Charles persuading his more peaceful and diplomatic father to declare war on Spain instead. However, this war would be a disaster as England failed to make any advancements. 

 

In 1625, James I finally died after a long period of illness, and Charles was now officially, King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland.

 

Later that same year, Charles also finally married Princess Henrietta-Maria of France, seeking an alliance with France now instead of Spain. Charles kept the marriage a secret until it was consummated, so that the English Parliament would have a more difficult time opposing the match, due to the fact that Henrietta-Maria was a Catholic. To keep the peace, Charles would lie to both kingdoms, promising England he would not relax Catholic suppression, while telling his new brother-in-law, King Louis XIII of France, that he would. Henrietta-Maria would refuse to take part in what was supposed to be their joint coronation as king and queen due to it being a Protestant ceremony. 

 

The marriage between Charles and Henrietta-Maria would get off to a very rocky start. They would frequently clash over matters of religion, and Charles would expel all of her French servants. It was not until Charles' friend and ally, the previously mentioned Duke of Buckingham, was assassinated in 1628, that the relationship between the king and queen would improve. He began to devote himself more to her as a husband, and the pair then fell in love, and sought to possess a happy, virtuous family life. The two of them grew even closer when Henrietta-Maria became pregnant for the first time. The two of them would go on to have nine children together, though only six of them would survive into adulthood. 

 

Meanwhile, tensions between Charles and Parliament only further increased, and the king was beginning to be viewed as a tyrant. The wars with Spain and later France had all been a disaster, and Charles would dissolve Parliament many times when he couldn't get his own way. The only time he would re-open Parliament would be when he needed funds from raising taxes, which only Parliament had the power to grant. His financial policies would prove hugely unpopular as he would increase monopolies, extort landowners, and cause large scale deforestation within the kingdom. By the 1640s, Charles was facing bankruptcy, as he sought out other ways to obtain money instead of relying on Parliament.

 

His religious policies would also cause worry within the kingdom, as he began to be viewed as too sympathetic towards Catholicism, as well as failing to support Protestant causes abroad. He alienated Scotland by enforcing Church of England traditions there instead of Church of Scotland ones. This would eventually lead to riots throughout Scotland, which Charles viewed as an open rebellion against him, and the Bishops' Wars would break out. 

 

To fund all of this, Charles was forced to summon Parliament, much to his annoyance. However, these sessions would lead to chaos, which Scotland quickly took advantage of, declaring that they could govern themselves without any input from the king. When Charles rode north with his forces to confront the Scottish, he was quickly defeated. The English Parliament advised Charles to make peace with Scotland, which resulted in humiliating concessions having to be made by Charles, only causing him to become even more unpopular.

 

The Long Parliament began as the government attempted to clear up the mess that Charles had made of the three kingdoms. Many of the king's closest allies and supporters were arrested for treason, and Parliament also ensured to grant themselves more powers and protections against the king's authority in order to keep the monarchy in check. The House of Commons was now unable to be dissolved by the monarch without first gaining Parliament approval. 

 

Rebellions also broke out in Ireland, and rumours implicated Charles as having sided with the predominantly Catholic Gaelic Irish, though these likely were not true. Further rumours of Catholic conspiracies began to spread, and Charles raising an army against Irish rebellion was viewed with suspicion, with people believing that it was a cover so he could turn his soldiers on Parliament instead. England began to dissolve into chaos, and the final straw for Charles came when rumours reached him about Parliament desiring to arrest his wife. 

 

Charles suspected that certain members of Parliament were plotting against him, and he even aided in Scotland's invasion of northern England. Charles demanded that Parliament hand over his five main suspects, but they refused. When Charles turned up to the House of Commons in person to have them arrested, the five men had already fled into hiding. This was viewed as incredibly scandalous of Charles, as no monarch had ever entered the House of Commons before, which was viewed as interference and a breach of freedom of speech and government. This fatal mistake would finally completely turn Parliament against him, and the English Civil Wars would begin.

 

Parliament then rose up and seized control of London, forcing Charles to flee. His wife and some of his children were sent abroad for their own safety, while Charles travelled north in an attempt to rally military support, but was shocked when government members physically blocked him from doing so. 

 

While Charles used old laws and conscription to raise his military support, Parliament relied on volunteers, of which there were many due to Charles' unpopularity. Charles took complete control of his military, who became known as the royalist army, nicknamed the 'cavaliers'; the Parliamentary army would come to be nicknamed 'the round heads'.

 

The first battle officially broke out in 1642, which ended in a stalemate, and left Charles relatively traumatised. The English Civil War would go on to become the bloodiest and deadliest war in English history. Both sides witnessed victories and defeats, and any attempts at negotiations or peace talks ended in failure. 

 

The war began reaching its end in 1646 after a large series of royalist defeats in battle. While based in Oxford, Charles and his forces were held under siege from which Charles escaped while disguising himself as a servant. England was now lost to the Parliamentary forces, and Charles fled to Scotland in the hopes of rallying further support for himself. However, this backfired, as Charles was just as unpopular in Scotland as he was in England, and he was swiftly captured. With the desire to keep peaceful relations between England and Scotland, the Scottish Parliament agreed to hand over Charles to the English Parliament in exchange for a large sum of money. 

 

Charles was officially arrested by the English Parliament in January 1647. He was originally held under house arrest until he managed to escape again, possibly planning to flee to France. However, he was betrayed by the governor of the Isle of Wight, who once again imprisoned him and reported his location to Parliament. 

 

At this point, Charles was desperate for allies, and finally managed to reach a secret alliance with Scotland, in which it was agreed the Scottish army would rescue and reinstate him, in exchange for Presbyterian dominance within the kingdoms. True to their word, Scotland invaded England, igniting the second stage of the Civil War. Uprisings from some remaining royalists also broke out within England, but these were quickly defeated by the English Parliamentarian army. 

 

By this point in time, Oliver Cromwell had rose to prominence and became a leading force within the Parliamentary faction. Both he and the army opposed any further peace talks with the king, and believed that Parliament should fully seize control of power. The military coup which then took place would further cement Charles' fate. 

 

What followed next was unprecedented as Charles was formally placed on trial for committing treason against England, as well as misuse of power and the pursuit of personal interests. A king of England had never been placed on trial before, and many within the House of Lords rejected such an outlandish proposal. But the House of Commons quickly overruled this, and unfortunately for Charles, many of his supporters boycotted the trial, believing it to be absurd to place a king on trial. 

 

Charles' formal trial began in 1649, with only staunch Parliamentary supporters in attendance. Many were angry over the large scale of the population that had died during the war, with some estimates suggesting six percent of the English population perished - Charles was blamed for all of this. Charles refused to enter a plea, believing himself to be above all of this, firm in his ideology of the divine right of monarchs. He would be found guilty of treason, and the instigation of murder, rape, arson, damages, and mischief to the nation. Charles was then sentenced to death.

 

Before Charles' scheduled execution, two of his children were allowed to visit him while he remained imprisoned. He held them close to him and bid them farewell, all three of them in tears. Charles then ordered that he be given two layers of shirts to ensure that any shivering from cold weather could not be mistaken for fear. 

 

On the day of his execution, Charles was led onto the specially erected scaffold, and gave a speech as was customary, though the huge crowds that had gathered to watch were unable to hear him from the distance they were kept. Naturally, he blamed Parliament for everything that had happened. 

 

Charles met his death bravely, being beheaded by a single blow of the axe. 

        

Rule:

Charles is easily regarded as one of the most disastrous monarchs in the history of the British Isles. His reign plunged Britain into chaos, with riots, uprisings, and multiple civil wars which would result in the deaths of half a million people. The monarchy would be inadvertently changed forever due to his actions, and Britain even briefly became a republic due to how tainted the idea of monarchy became under his rule. 

 

As a firm believer in the divine right of kings, Charles attempted to rule in an autocratic style, believing himself to be answerable only to God. This made him deeply unpopular as his refused to compromise or consult with Parliament on important matters of state. His religious policies would be even more unpopular. He married a Catholic princess, yet refused to demonstrate any hint of toleration towards other religious denominations, especially Presbyterians and Puritans. Ignorant of cultural differences, he attempted to force the Church of England onto the people of Scotland, which would cause wide scale rebellions.

 

Arguably, it is Charles' stubbornness and self-righteousness that led to his own downfall. His direct role in causing the English Civil Wars and Wars of the Three Kingdoms are unmistakable, as he continued to pursue unpopular policies, and provoke Parliament. He viewed himself as above it all, sealing his fate by storming into the House of Commons one day, with little regard for democracy and dignity. He arrogantly assumed he was untouchable, and was careless when it came to who his allies were, including the unpopular Duke of Buckingham, and the Isle of Wight Governor who would hand him over to Parliamentary forces. That final mistake would cost him his life.

 

Though overall unpopular, Charles was in fact viewed as a martyr by loyal royalists. He was viewed as more competent and hardworking that his alcoholic father, and there were those in Britain who followed Charles' view of the divine right of kings. But these would not be enough to save him from his own hubris. 

 

Charles is, without a doubt, one of the most incompetent monarchs in British history.       

  

Trivia:

• The identity of his executioner remains a mystery, as he was kept well hidden, and did not even speak in case anybody recognised his voice. At the very least, he was a very skilled executioner based on the smooth single stroke of the axe through Charles' neck. 
• After his execution, many members of the crowd would dip their handkerchiefs in the king's blood as a memento.   

 

Quotes: 

 

"Princes are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone."

A declaration to Parliament. 

 

"I cannot flatter myself with the expectation of good success more than this, to end my days with honour and a good conscience."

Remark before surrendering to the Scottish army. 

 

"I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can be, no disturbance in the world."

Final words before his execution. 

 

"I am the martyr of the people."

Final speech before his execution. 

 

"Next to religion, the power of the sword is the truest judge and greatest support of sovereignty."

Speaking about his willingness to fight his enemies. 

 

 

Timeline of Reign:

| 1625: Secret French Treaty - Charles secretly promises France to relax restrictions on Catholics.
| 1625: Cádiz Expedition - English and Dutch expedition against Spain ends in failure.

| 1625: Rapid deforestation - Vast acres of forest in England are destroyed for farming and mining. 

| 1626: Western Rising begins - Riots break out across England over the selling of forests.
| 1627: Siege of St. Martin's - English attempts to capture French fortress ends in failure.
| 1628: Assassination of the Duke of Buckingham - Charles' closest ally is assassinated.

| 1637: Scottish Prayer Book - Scotland forced to use Anglican prayer book.

| 1637: Edinburgh Riots - Riots in Scotland break out over forced Anglican religious policies.

| 1639: Wars of the Three Kingdoms begin - Civil wars break out in England, Scotland and Ireland. 

| 1639: First Bishops' War - Charles clashes with Presbyterian Scottish forces.

| 1639: Treaty of Berwick - Charles regains control of Scotland.

| 1640: Torture outlawed - The use of torture is banned in England.

| 1640: Second Bishops' War - Charles once again clashes with Presbyterians.

| 1640: Treaty of Ripon - Charles and the Presbyterians reach a truce.

| 1640: Triennial Act - Monarchs now prevented from ruling with Parliament.

| 1641: The Incident - Charles attempts a royal coup in Scotland which decreases his popularity. 

| 1641: Irish Rebellion - Irish population rise up against English overlords.

| 1641: Grand Remonstrance - A list of grievances is given to Charles regarding his rule.

| 1642: Failed arrest of the Five Members - Charles fails to arrest five politicians for treason. 

| 1642: First English Civil War begins - War breaks out between Royalists and Parliamentarians. 

| 1642: Parliament seizes London - Parliament seizes control of London and Charles is forced to flee.

| 1642: Queen Henrietta-Maria evacuated - The Queen and her eldest daughter are sent to France.

| 1642: Siege of Hull - Charles fails to acquire military support in Hull.

| 1642: Battle of Edgehill - Battle between Royalists and Parliamentarians ends in stalemate.

| 1642: Battle of Brentford - Royalists defeat Parliamentarians.

| 1642: Battle of Turnham Green - Parliamentarians defeat Royalists.

| 1643: Storming of Bristol - Royalists capture the city of Bristol.

| 1643: Siege of Gloucester - Parliamentarians capture city of Gloucester.

| 1643: First Battle of Newbury - Parliamentarians defeat Royalists.

| 1644: Relief of Newark - Royalists capture the city of Newark.

| 1644: Siege of York - Royalists briefly capture city of York only to lose it again a few days later.

| 1644: Battle of Cropredy Bridge - Royalists defeat Parliamentarians. 

| 1644: Battle of Marston Moor - Parliamentarians defeat Royalists.

| 1644: Battle of Lostwithiel - Royalists defeat Parliamentarians.

| 1644: Second Battle of Newbury - Battle ends in a stalemate.

| 1645: Battle of Naseby - Parliamentarians defeat Royalists. 

| 1645: East Anglian Witch Hunts - Witch hunts increase in East Anglia led by Matthew Hopkins.

| 1646: Siege of Oxford - Parliamentarians capture the city of Oxford. 

| 1646: First English Civil War ends - Parliament is victorious and Charles flees to Scotland.

| 1647: Scotland sells Charles to England - Scotland hands Charles over to the English Parliament.

| 1647: Charles arrested - Charles is placed under house arrest.

| 1647: Charles escapes - Charles escapes imprisonment and attempts to flee to France.

| 1647: Charles captured again - Charles is captured by the Governor of the Isle of Wight. 

| 1647: The Engagement - Scottish Presbyterians agree to rescue Charles for more religious control.

| 1648: Second English Civil War begins - War breaks out between Royalists and Parliamentarians.

| 1648: Scotland invades England - Scotland invades England on the side of the Royalists. 

| 1648: English and Welsh uprisings - Uprisings defeated by Parliamentarians. 

| 1648: Battle of Preston - Parliamentarians defeat Royalists. 

| 1648: Pride's Purge - Those sympathetic to Charles are removed from Parliament. 

| 1649: Charles charged with treason - Charles officially charged with treason.

| 1649: Trial of Charles I - Charles found guilty of treason as well as various other charges.

| 1649: Execution of Charles I - Charles is executed in front of a large London crowd. 

 

   

Sources & Further Reading:

Ashley, M. (2019). Charles I | Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-I-king-of-Great-Britain-and-Ireland

Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641) - Charles I (1600-1649) - RCIN 404398 - Royal Collection.jpg - Wikimedia Commons. (2023) Wikimedia.org. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anthony_van_Dyck_(1599-1641)_-_Charles_I_(1600-1649)_-_RCIN_404398_-_Royal_Collection.jpg 

Brain, J. (n.d.). King Charles I. Historic UK. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/King-Charles-I/ 

Cust, R. (2011). BBC - History - British History in depth: The Personality and Political Style of Charles I. BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/personality_charles_01.shtml

Easton, H. (2023). King Charles I and the divine right of kings: Why was really beheaded? Discover Britain. https://www.discoverbritain.com/history/icons/charles-i/ 

The execution of Charles I. (n.d.). Historic Royal Palaces. https://www.hrp.org.uk/banqueting-house/history-and-stories/the-execution-of-charles-i/

UK Parliament. (2019). The Personal Rule of Charles I. UK Parliament. https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentaryauthority/civilwar/overview/personal-rule/